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(gcc-295.info)Nested Functions

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Nested Functions
================

   A "nested function" is a function defined inside another function.
(Nested functions are not supported for GNU C++.)  The nested function's
name is local to the block where it is defined.  For example, here we
define a nested function named `square', and call it twice:

     foo (double a, double b)
     {
       double square (double z) { return z * z; }
     
       return square (a) + square (b);
     }

   The nested function can access all the variables of the containing
function that are visible at the point of its definition.  This is
called "lexical scoping".  For example, here we show a nested function
which uses an inherited variable named `offset':

     bar (int *array, int offset, int size)
     {
       int access (int *array, int index)
         { return array[index + offset]; }
       int i;
       ...
       for (i = 0; i < size; i++)
         ... access (array, i) ...
     }

   Nested function definitions are permitted within functions in the
places where variable definitions are allowed; that is, in any block,
before the first statement in the block.

   It is possible to call the nested function from outside the scope of
its name by storing its address or passing the address to another
function:

     hack (int *array, int size)
     {
       void store (int index, int value)
         { array[index] = value; }
     
       intermediate (store, size);
     }

   Here, the function `intermediate' receives the address of `store' as
an argument.  If `intermediate' calls `store', the arguments given to
`store' are used to store into `array'.  But this technique works only
so long as the containing function (`hack', in this example) does not
exit.

   If you try to call the nested function through its address after the
containing function has exited, all hell will break loose.  If you try
to call it after a containing scope level has exited, and if it refers
to some of the variables that are no longer in scope, you may be lucky,
but it's not wise to take the risk.  If, however, the nested function
does not refer to anything that has gone out of scope, you should be
safe.

   GNU CC implements taking the address of a nested function using a
technique called "trampolines".   A paper describing them is available
as `http://people.debian.org/~karlheg/Usenix88-lexic.pdf'.

   A nested function can jump to a label inherited from a containing
function, provided the label was explicitly declared in the containing
function (Note: Local Labels.).  Such a jump returns instantly to the
containing function, exiting the nested function which did the `goto'
and any intermediate functions as well.  Here is an example:

     bar (int *array, int offset, int size)
     {
       __label__ failure;
       int access (int *array, int index)
         {
           if (index > size)
             goto failure;
           return array[index + offset];
         }
       int i;
       ...
       for (i = 0; i < size; i++)
         ... access (array, i) ...
       ...
       return 0;
     
      /* Control comes here from `access'
         if it detects an error.  */
      failure:
       return -1;
     }

   A nested function always has internal linkage.  Declaring one with
`extern' is erroneous.  If you need to declare the nested function
before its definition, use `auto' (which is otherwise meaningless for
function declarations).

     bar (int *array, int offset, int size)
     {
       __label__ failure;
       auto int access (int *, int);
       ...
       int access (int *array, int index)
         {
           if (index > size)
             goto failure;
           return array[index + offset];
         }
       ...
     }